Related Sections: Poetic Style | Bibliography Book 1. In a lengthy exordium, the poet declares the subject of his poem to be the Second Punic War, the most difficult of the three wars between Rome and Carthage, in which world dominion hung in the balance (1-20). The cause of the war is traced back to Juno, the divine patron of Carthage. The goddess sees Rome starting to expand her power and stirs up conflict in an attempt to check the rise of Rome. After a brief recollection of the First Punic War, Juno chooses Hannibal as as the instrument of her will (21-55). Hannibal's character is described, as well as his upbringing (56-80). At a young age, Hannibal is taken to the temple of Dido by his father Hamilcar and made to take an oath to destroy Rome (81-121). Following the oath, a sacrifice is performed, and the priestess of Dido delivers a prophecy fortelling the triumphs of Hannibal's campaign against the Romans, but ending on an ambiguous note (122-139). Meanwhile, Hasdrubal succeeds Hamilcar as commander in Spain; his character, conquests, and death are briefly described (140-181). After his death, Hannibal is unanimously chosen by the troops as the next commander in Spain (182-238). The qualities that make Hannibal an effective and popular military commander are elaborated (239-267). Upon taking the Spanish command, Hannibal decides to capture Saguntum. In a brief digression, the poet provides a history of Saguntum (268-295). The siege of Saguntum begins, and both sides fight with great determination. The Carthaginians managed to breach the city walls, only to have the Saguntines defend fiercely and rebuild the wall (296-563). The Saguntines now send an embassy to Rome asking for help in their desperate situation. Sicoris delivers an impassioned speech to the Senate (564-671). The Senators then deliberate, with Fabius Maximus and Cornelius Lentulus expressing opposing views. At length they resolve to send an embassy to Hannibal to demand a cessation of hostilities and compensation for the attack on Saguntum. The embassy, led by Fabius, sets sail for Spain (672-694).   Book 2. The Roman envoys arrive in Spain only to be dismissed without an audience by Hannibal. Thus snubbed, they sail to Carthage (1-24). Hannibal understands that the Romans will demand his punishment. He addresses his men and goes on with the siege of Saguntum (26-269). The Roman envoys arrive in Carthage and are received in the Carthaginian senate, where sentiment is divided. Hanno delivers a speech against Hannibal and foretells doom for Carthage if war with Rome is pursued (270-326). Gestar counters with a forceful speech in support of Hannibal and an attack on Rome. When the Carthaginian senate refuses Hanno's demand for the recall of Hannibal, Fabius declares war (270-390). Meanwhile, Hannibal subdues some rebellious Spanish tribes and returns to the siege of Saguntum. He receives a gift of armour from the people of Spain, including an engraved shield with various scenes, which are now elaborated in an ecphrasis. The scenes include the founding of Carthage; the love affair of Dido and Aeneas, culminating in the suicide of Dido; Hannibal and his father Hamilcar praying at an altar to the gods of the underworld; images from the First Punic War; moments of pastoral tranquility in North Africa; and the beginnings of the Second Punic War (391-456). The narrative resumes with an account of the difficulties and suffering of the besieged Saguntines; they now realize that there is no hope of a relieving force and that they face certain destruction (457-474). Hercules, the founder of the city, is filled with pity by the plight of the Saguntines; he sends the goddess Fides (Loyalty) to the city to encourage continued resistance (475-525). But Juno sends a Fury from Tartarus who drives the people mad (526-649). They build a great pyre and light it, and stage a mass suicide; Hannibal enters the city, now empty (650-695). The book closes with a brief epilogue that praises the Saguntines and foretells the death of Hannibal (696-707).   Book 3. Following the capture of Saguntum, Hannibal sends Bostar to Africa to consult the oracle of Jupiter Ammon (1-13). Hannibal goes to Gades, where he is shown the famous temple of Hercules and marvels at the tides of the Atlantic (14-60). He sends his wife, Himilce, and his infant son to Carthage (61-167). In his sleep, Hannibal is visited by Mercury, who deceptively promises him that he shall stand as victor before the walls of Rome; he dreams of the coming campaign (168-213). Hannibal sets off with his troops; a catalog of the Carthaginian forces follows (214-405). Hannibal leads his troops across the Pyrenees (406-441). He crosses the Rhone and the Durance (442-476). The Alps are described (477-499). After frightful hardships he pitches a camp on the summit of the mountain, (500-556). Venus and Jupiter converse concerning the destiny of Rome (557-629). Hannibal encamps in the country of the Taurini (630-646). Bostar brings back from Africa the response of Jupiter Ammon, which seems to prophesy complete success for the Carthaginians (647-714).   Book 4. Rome is greatly alarmed by the news that Hannibal has reached Italy: but the Senate does not lose heart (1-38). Hannibal courts the Gauls of Northern Italy. Publius Cornelius Scipio hurries back from Marseilles in order to engage Hannibal (39-66). Both generals address their soldiers and prepare for battle (56-100). An omen precedes the battle (101-134). The battle begins; initial successes of the Romans; both leaders fight bravely (135-453). Publius Cornelius Scipio is wounded in combat, and is rescued by his young son Scipio Africanus (454-68). The Carthaginians are victorious (469-479). In the wake of the battle, Publius Cornelius Scipio withdraws to the Trebia, and is joined by an army under Tiberius Sempronis Longus (480-497). Hannibal pursues the Romans to the Trebia river and forces them to fight (498-524). An invocation by the poet precedes the account of the battle (525-528). After intense fighting, the Roman troops lose their formation, and many are driven to the Trebia river, which Juno now incites to assault the Romans (529-641). Seeing this, Publius Cornelius Scipio engages the Trebia in single combat. He is only spared from death by the intervention of Vulcan, who hurls fireballs at the river and thereby causes it to retreat (642-697). Publius Cornelius Scipio then calls together his men and withdraws, along with Gracchus, to a fortified hill (698-704). The consul Gaius Flaminius leads a fresh army into Etruria (706-721). During the night, Hannibal has a dream visitation by a disguised Juno, promising him a great victory at Lake Trasimene (722-738). Encouraged by the dream, Hannibal crosses the Apennines and encamps by Lake Trasimene (739-762). Meanwhile, Hannibal's son has been chosen by lot for human sacrifice, according to Punic religious tradition; envoys from Carthage arrive and request Hannibal's consent for the sacrifice: he refuses (763-829).   Book 5. Hannibal lays a trap for the enemy. The name of Lake Trasimene (1-23). Flaminius makes light of evil omens and the warning of Corvinus, the soothsayer, and encourages his men to fight (24-185). The battle of Lake Trasimene (186-678).   Book 6. Scenes on the field of the lost battle. Flight of the Romans (1-61). Serranus, a son of the famous Regulus, is one of the fugitives: he reaches the dwelling of Marus, who had been his father's squire in Africa: Marus dresses his wound, (62-100), and tells the story of Regulus as conqueror and as captive (101-551). Mourning and consternation at Rome after the defeat. Serranus returns to his mother, Marcia (552-589). The Senate discuss plans of campaign. Jupiter prevents Hannibal from marching on Rome. Quintus Fabius is chosen Dictator (590-618). His sagacity is described (619-640). Hannibal marches through Umbria and Picenum to Campania. At Liternum he sees on the temple-walls pictures of scenes in the First Punic War, and orders them to be burnt (641-716).   Book 7. Fabius determines to take no risks in the field (1-19). Cilnius, one of his prisoners, informs Hannibal concerning the family history and character of Fabius (20-73). Religious observances at Rome (74-89). Fabius restores discipline in the army. Hannibal cannot tempt him to fight (90-122). He then moves to Apulia and tries, without success to provoke Fabius. Frustrated, Hannibal returns to Campania and lays waste to it, and to the Falernian region in particular (123-161). This leads to a digression in which the poet explains the proverbial excellence of Falernian wine via the story of a visit by Bacchus to the old peasant Falernus (162-211). Fabius explains his policy of inaction to his discontented soldiers (212-259). A trick of Hannibal's, to make the Dictator more unpopular (260-267). Hannibal, having got into a dangerous situation, breaks out by means of a stratagem and encamps on open ground (268-376). The Dictator, obliged to visit Rome, warns Minucius against fighting (377-408). A Carthaginian fleet lands at Caieta: the Nymphs are terrified; but the prophecy of Proteus comforts them (409-493). Minucius is given equal powers with the Dictator (494-622). The Dictator returns and gives up half the army to Minucius: Minucius rashly engages the enemy but is rescued by the Dictator (623-679). Fabius is hailed as "Father" by Minucius and the soldiers (730-750).   Book 8. Hannibal's anxiety grows over his inability to defeat Fabius (1-24). In order to comfort him, Juno sends Anna Perenna: Anna, the sister of Dido, is now a nymph of the river Numicius: she recounts her own history, and encourages Hannibal by foretelling the battle of Cannae (25-210). She instructs Hannibal to go to Apulia (211-224). Hannibal consequently leads his troops to Arpi in Apulia (25-242). Quintus Terentius Varro is elected consul at Rome: he delivers a series of boastful speeches, and unwisely leads the army outside the city. His consular colleague, Lucius Aemilius Paulus, is afraid to challenge him (243-297). Fabius then urges Paulus to oppose Varro's ill-conceived plans to engage with Hannibal. Paulus replies that he will argue against Varro, but will fight and die if he cannot convince the soldiers to follow his advice (298-348). The consuls and their armies begin the march to Cannae. A catalog of the Roman troops follows (349-621). Once they have reached Cannae, a series of terrifying omens alarm the Romans prior to battle (622-676).   Book 9. Varro is eager to fight, and his boldness is increased by a successful skirmish against the Carthaginian forces. Paulus refuses to give battle and tries in vain to restrain his colleague (1-65). A horrible crime committed in ignorance during the night portends disaster to the Romans (66-177). Hannibal delivers a speech of encouragement to his men and then draws them up in line of battle (178-243). Varro does likewise (244-277). The battle of Cannae is then begun (278-657).   Book 10. Further description of the battle: valor and death of Paulus (1-326). Flushed with victory, Hannibal intends to march on Rome next day. Juno sends a dream to encourage him to do so, but the dream is suddenly interrupted by a voice which declares that Hannibal has no hope of ever capturing Rome (326-370). He yields to the voice, and calls off the march to Rome, in spite of the strong protests of Mago (371-386). The remnant of the Roman army rally at Canusium: their miserable plight (387-414). Metellus proposes that the Romans should leave Italy; but Scipio threatens death to him and his sympathizers (415-448). Hannibal surreys the battle-field: the faithful horse of Cloelia: the story of his ancestress, Cloelia: the body of Paulus is found and buried (449-677). Distress at Rome (678-691). Fabius encourages his countrymen (692-604). He also calms the fury of the populace against Varro (605-622). Varro returns to Rome (623-639). The Senate adopts measures to enlist soldiers and continue the war (640-668).   Book 11. Many peoples of Italy revolt from Rome and join Hannibal (1-27). Capua too is inclined to go over to the Carthaginians: the wealth and luxurious habits of the citizens (28-54). On the motion of Pacuvius, they send Virrius and other envoys to Rome, asking that one of the two consuls should be a Campanian: this demand is indignantly refused by Torquatus, Fabius, and Marcellus (55-129). Capua goes over to Hannibal: Decius alone protests but in vain (130-189). Hannibal starts for Capua: he orders Decius to be arrested: Decius defies his threats, and foretells the ruin that the alliance with Capua will cause for Hannibal (190-268). Hannibal visits the city and is entertained at a great banquet (269-368): Teuthras of Cumae, a musician, plays and sings (288-302). The son of Pacuvius intends to stab Hannibal while feasting, but is induced by his father to give up his plan (303-368). Hannibal winters his troops at Capua: Venus enfeebles the spirit of his army. Hannibal himself takes pleasure in the music of Teuthras (369-482). While Hannibal and his men are relaxing in Capua, his brother Mago sails to Carthage where he reports to the Senate the successes of Hannibal and makes a fierce attack upon Hanno (483-553). Hanno responds with a speech urging that peace be made (554-600). But the Senate rejects this suggestion, and reinforcements are sent both to Spain and Italy (600-611).   Book 12. Hannibal leaves Capua: his troops have become ennervated from soft living and fail in attacks upon Neapolis, Cumae (1-103). While his men lay siege to Puteoli, Hannibal visits the sights of the country-side, Baiae and other famous places (103-157). He marches against Nola but is beaten off by Marcellus (158-294). The Romans become more hopeful and are further encouraged by an oracle from Delphi (295-341). The war in Sardinia: Torquatus defeats Hampsagoras: a tribute to the poet Ennius (342-419). Hannibal burns several cities and takes the city of Tarentum but not the citadel (420-448). He returns to defend Capua against a Roman blockade, beating two Roman armies on the way: he buries the body of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (449-478). Unable to force his way into Capua, he marches against Rome (479-540). Consternation at Rome (541-557). He examines the walls and surroundings of the city, but is driven back to his camp by Fulvius Flaccus who had hastened back from Campania (668-673). Two attempts to fight a battle are frustrated by a terrible storm sent by Jupiter (674-667). Making a third attempt, he is stopped by Juno, acting by Jupiter's command (668-730). Rejoicing of the Romans (731-762).   Book 13. Hannibal withdraws to the river Tutia, and is prevented from attacking Rome again by Dasius, a deserter, who explains that the city is impregnable so long as it contains the Palladium. He returns to the land of the Bruttii (1-93). The Romans take Capua (94-380). Scipio's father and uncle are defeated and killed in Spain (381-384). This news induces Scipio to descend to Hades, to see the spirits of his kinsmen (385-396). He sees many ghosts of famous men and women in Hades. He meets the shade of his father, who explains the circumstances of his death, eight years earlier (397-867). Finally, the Sibyl consoles Scipio for the trails that await him by foretelling all that will befall Hannibal: he will be condemned, deserted by his wife and child; he will flee as an exile, and finally commit suicide (868-893). Following the Sibyl's disclosure, Scipio returns to the upper world (894-895).   Book 14. The campaign of Marcellus in Sicily: a description of the island (1-78). Causes of the war. Death of Hiero, king of Syracuse: succession of Hieronymus (79-95). Hieronymus is murdered, and general confusion follows (96-109). Marcellus prepares for action (110-124). He takes Leontini by storm (125-177). He undertakes a siege of Syracuse, both by land and by sea (178-191). Allies of Syracuse (192-247). Allies of Rome (248-257). Sicilian allies of Carthage (258-276). Confidence of the Syracusans (277-291). The genius of Archimedes foils all the attempts of the Romans (292-352). A sea-fight (353-579). An outbreak of plague delays operations (580-617). At last the city is taken (618-684).   Book 15. The Senate cannot decide which general to send to Spain. Scipio is eager to go, but his kinsmen dissuade him (1-17). He is visited by Virtus (Virtue) and Voluptas (Pleasure) who contend for his allegiance (18-128). Encouraged by Virtue's arguments, he asks for the command and receives it: an omen of success follows (129-151). Scipio and his forces set sail, and put to shore at Tarraco (152-179). In a dream visitation, the ghost of Scipio's father exhorts him to capture New Carthage. Accordingly, he leads his forces on a seven day march to New Carthage and immediately takes the city (180-250). He sacrifices to the gods, rewards his soldiers, and distributes the spoil: he restores a Spanish maiden to her lover and is praised by Laelius for this action (251-285). War against Philip, king of Macedon (286-319). Fabius takes Tarentum by a trick (320-333). The consuls, Marcellus and Crispinus, are beaten by Hannibal and Marcellus is killed in an ambush (334-398). In Spain Hasdrubal is put to flight by Scipio: praise of Laelius (399-492). Hasdrubal crosses the Alps, to join his brother in Italy (493-514). Great alarm at Rome. The consul, C. Claudius Nero, is warned in a dream by a personification of Italy to march northwards against Hasdrubal (515-559). Nero joins the other consul, M. Livius (560-600). The battle of the Metaurus (601-807). Nero returns to Lucania and displays to Hannibal his brother's head fixed on a pike (807-823).   Book 16. Hannibal moves about in the Bruttian country (1-22). The Carthaginians are driven out of Spain: Mago is defeated and flees to Carthage (23-27). Hanno is taken prisoner by Scipio (28-77). The army of Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo, is destroyed (78-114). Masinissa, a Numidian prince, deserts the Carthaginian side and joins the forces of Scipio (116-167). Scipio and Hasdrubal at the court of Syphax, a Numidian king: Syphax makes a treaty with the Romans; but evil omens follow (168-274). Scipio returns to Spain and holds games in honor of his father and uncle (275-591). He returns to Rome and is elected consul. He asks the Senate for permission to carry the war to Africa. In spite of the opposition of Fabius, the Senate consents (592-700).   Book 17. The image of Cybele is brought from Phrygia to Rome and received at Ostia by P. Scipio Nasica: the chastity of Claudia is vindicated (1-46). Scipio crosses to Africa (46-58). He warns Syphax not to break faith with Rome: the camp of Syphax is burnt, and he is taken prisoner (59-145). Hasdrubal retreats to Carthage. With Scipio in Africa, Hannibal is recalled from Italy to defend against the new threat (146-157). Hannibal's dream before the arrival of the summons (158-169). He leaves Italy in obedience to the summons (170-217). He decides to go back to Italy but is prevented by a fearful storm (218-291). After landing in Africa he delivers a speech of encouragement to his soldiers prior to battle (292-337). Jupiter and Juno converse about the fate of Hannibal; Jupiter reminds his wife of all she has done to harass Rome. Juno yields and accepts the impending defeat of Hannibal and the fall of Carthage. She asks only that Hannibal himself escape. Jupiter agrees, on the condition that he shall never visit Italy again (338-384). The battle of Zama begins, and the Romans are victorious (385-605). Hannibal withdraws (606-617). Scipio returns in triumph to Rome (618-664). Related Sections: Poetic Style | Bibliography