George J. Holyoake on Cooperation
|
| George Jacob Holyoake [I1] |
Editor's Note: Holyoake was one of the early Rochdale
Pioneers and one of the first chroniclers of their co-operative
efforts. His writing is unabashedly biased towards the Pioneers, and
the rich and dramatic style of his writing are probably annoying to
most modern readers, especially when he begins making broad
generalizations and characterizations. Yet somehow for these very
reasons, I find them both fascinating and amusing. I have included
here some of my favorite passages from his book
The History of the Rochdale Pioneers,
10th ed. (Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1918).
On those ``born under a disagreeable star'' [1]
The moral miracle performed by our co-operatives at Rochdale is,
that they have had the good sense to differ without disagreeing;
to dissent from each other without separating; to hate at times,
and yet always hold together. In most working classes, and,
indeed, in most public societies of all classes, a number of
curious persons are found, who appear born under a disagreeable
star; who breathe hostility, distrust, and dissension: whose
tones are always harsh: it is no fault of theirs, they never
mean it, but they cannot help it; their organs of speech are
cracked, and no melodious sound can come out of them; their
native note is a moral squeak; they are never cordial, and never
satisfied; the restless convolutions of their skin denote ``a
difference of opinion;'' their very lips are ``drawn up'' in the
shape of an amendment, and their wrinkled brows frown with an
``entirely new principle of action;'' they are a species of social
porcupines, whose quills eternally stick out; whose vision is
inverted; who see everything upside down; who place every
subject in water to inspect it, where the straightest rod
appears hopelessly bent; who know that every word has two
meanings, and who take always the one you do not intend; who
know that no statement can include everything, and who always
fix upon whatever you omit, and ignore whatever you assert; who
join a society ostensibly to co-operate with it, but really to
do nothing but criticise it, without attempting patiently to
improve that of which they complain; who, instead of seeking
strength to use it in mutual defence, look for weakness to
expose it to the common enemy; who make every associate sensible
of perpetual dissatisfaction, until membership with them becomes
a penal affliction, and you feel that you are sure of more peace
and more respect among your opponents than among your friends;
who predict to everybody that the thing must fail, until they
make it impossible that it can succeed, and then take credit for
their treacherous foresight, and ask your gratitude and respect
for the very help which hampered you; they are friends who act
as the fire brigade of the party; they always carry a water
engine with them, and under the suspicion that your cause is in
a constant conflagration, splash and drench you from morning
till night, until every member is in an everlasting state of
drip; who believe that co-operation is another word for
organised irritation, and who, instead of showing the blind the
way, and helping the lame along, and giving the weak a lift, and
imparting courage to the timid, and confidence to the
despairing, spend their time in sticking pins into the tender,
treading on the toes of the gouty, pushing the lame down the
stairs, leaving those in the dark behind, telling the fearful
that thy may well be afraid, and assuring the despairing that it
is ``all up.'' A sprinkling of these ``damned good-natured
friends'' belong to most societies; they are few in number, but
indestructible; they are the highwaymen of progress, who alarm
every traveller, and make you stand and deliver your hopes; they
are the Iagoes and Turpins of democracy, and only wise men and
strong men can evade them or defy them. The Rochdale
co-operators understand them very well-they met them-bore
with them-worked with them-worked in spite of them-looked
upon them as the accidents of progress, gave them a pleasant
word and a merry smile, and passed on before them; they answered
them not by word but by act, as Diogenes refuted Zeno. When
Zeno said there was no motion, Diogenes answered him by
moving. When adverse critics, with Briarian hands,
pointed to failure, the Rochdale co-operators replied by
succeeding.
Whoever joins a popular society ought to be made aware of this
curious species of colleagues who we have described. You can
get on with them very well if they do not take you by surprise.
Indeed, they are useful in their way; they are the dead weights
with which the social architect tries the strength of his new
building. We mention them because they existed in Rochdale, and
that fact serves to show that our co-operators enjoyed no favour
from nature or accident. They were tried like other men, and
had to combat the ordinary human difficulties. Take two
examples.
Of course the members' meetings are little parliaments of
working men-not very little parliaments now, for they include
thrice the number of members composing the House of Commons.
All the mutual criticisms in which English men proverbially
indulge, and the grumblings said to be our national
characteristic, and the petty jealousies of democracies, are
reproduced on these occasions, though not upon the fatal scale
so common among the working class. Here, in the parliament of
our Store, the leader of the opposition sometimes shows no mercy
to the leader in power; and Rochdale Gladstone or Disraelies
very freely criticise the quarterly budget of the Sir George
Cornewall Lewis of the day. At one time there was our friend
Ben, a member of the Store so known, who was never satisfied
with anything-and yet he never complained of anything. He
look his disapproval, but never spoke it. He was suspicious of
everybody in a degree, it would seem, too great for utterance.
He went about everywhere, he inspected everything, and doubted
everything. He shook his dissent, not from his tongue, but his
head. It was at one time thought that the management must sink
under his portentous disapprobation. With more wisdom than
usually falls to critics, he refrained from speaking until he
know what he had to say. After two years of this weighty
travail the clouds disappeared, and Ben found speech and
confidence together. He found that his profits had increased
notwithstanding this distrust, and he could no longer find in
his heart to frown upon the Store which was making him rich. At
last he went up to the cashier to draw his profits, and he came
down, like Moses from the mount, with his face shining.
Another guardian of the democratic weal fulminated heroically.
The very opposite of Ben, he almost astounded the Store by his
ceaseless and stentorian speeches. The Times newspaper
would not contain a report of his quarterly orations. He could
not prove that anything was wrong, but he could not believe that
all was right. He was invited to attend a meeting of the Board;
indeed, if we have studied the chronicles of the store
correctly, he was appointed a member of the Board, that he might
not only see the right thing done, but do it; but he was too
indignant to do his duty, and he was so committed to
dissatisfaction that above all things he was afraid of being
undeceived; and, during his whole period of office, he actually
sat with his back to the Board, and in that somewhat unfriendly
and inconvenient attitude he delivered his respective opinions.
Whether, like the hare, he had ears behind has to been
certified; but, unless he had eyes behind, he never could have
seen what took place. A more perfect member of an opposition
has rarely appeared. He was made by nature to conduct an
antagonism. At length he was bribed into content-bribed by
the only legitimate bribery-the bribery of success. When the
dividends came in behind him, he turned round to look at
them, and he pocketed his ``brass'' and his wrath together;
and, though he has never been brought to confess that things are
going right, he has long ceased to say that they are going
wrong.
On education, openness, and trust [2]
The Store very early began to exercise educational functions.
Besides supplying the members with provisions, the Store became
a meeting place, where almost every member met each other every
evening after working hours. Here there were was harmony
because there was equality. Every member was equal in right,
and was allowed to express his opinions on whatever topic he
took an interest in. Religion and politics, the terrors of
Mechanics' Institutions, were here common subjects of
discussion, and harmless because they were open. In other
respects the co-operators acquired business confidence as well
as business habits. The Board was open to everybody, and, in
fact, everybody went everywhere. Distrust dies out where
nothing is concealed. Confidence and honest pride sprung up,
for every member was a master-he was at once purchaser and
proprietor. But all did not go smoothly on. Besides the
natural obstacles which exist, ignorance and inexperience
created others.
Poverty is a greater impediment to social success than even
prejudice. With a small capital you cannot buy good articles
nor cheap ones. What is bought at a small Store will probably
be worse and dearer than the same articles elsewhere. This
discourages the poor. With them every penny must tell, and
every penny extra they pay for goods seems to them a tax, and
they will not often incur it. It is of no use that you show
them that it and more will come back again as profit at the end
of the quarter. They do not believe in the end of the
quarter-they distrust the promise of profits. The loss of
the penny to-day is near-the gain of sixpence three months
hence is remote. Thus you have to educate the poor before you
can serve them. The humbler your means the greater your
difficulties-you will have to teach as well as to save the
very poor. One would think that a customer ought to be content
when he is his own shopkeeper; on the contrary, he is not
satisfied with the price he charges himself. Intelligent
contentment is the slowest plant that grows upon the soil of
ignorance. Some of the male members, and no wonder that many of
the women also, thought meanly of the Store. They had been
accustomed to fine shops, and the Toad Lane warehouse was
repulsive to them; but after a time the women became conscious
of the pride of paying ready money for their goods, and of
feeling that the Store was their own, and they began to take
equal interest with their husbands. As usually happens in these
cases, the members who rendered no support to the new
undertaking when it most wanted support, made up by making more
complaints than anybody else, thus rendering no help themselves
and discouraging those who did. It has been a triumph of
penetration and good sense to inspire these contributors with a
habit of supporting that, which, in its turn, supports them so
well. There are times still when a cheaper article has its
attraction for the Store purchaser, when he forgets the supreme
advantage of knowing that his food is good, or his garment as
stout as can be made. He will sometimes forget the moral
satisfaction derived from knowing that the article he can buy
from the Store has, as far as the Store can influence it, been
produced by some workman, who, in his turn, was paid at some
living rate for his labour. Now and then, the higgler will
appear at the little co-operative stores around, and the Store
dealers will believe them, and prefer their goods to the
supplies to be had from the Store, because they are some
fraction cheaper; without their being able to know what
adulteration, or hard bargaining elsewhere, has been practised
to effect the reduction.
On the evils of credit [3]
Any person passing through the manufacturing districts of
Lancashire will be struck with the great number of small
provision shops; many of them dealing in drapery goods as well
as food. From these shops the operatives, to a great extent,
spread their tables and cover their backs. Unfortunately, with
them the credit system is the rule, and ready money the
exception. The majority of the people trading at these shops
have what is called a ``Strap Book,'' which, of course, is always
taken when anything is fetched, and balanced as often as the
operatives receive their wages, which is generally weekly, but
in many cases fortnightly. A balance is generally left due to
the shopkeeper, thus a great number of operatives are always
less or more in debt. When trade becomes slack, he goes deeper
and deeper, until he is irretrievably involved. When his work
fails altogether, he is obliged to remove to another district,
and of course to trade with another shop, unless at great
inconvenience he sends all the distance to the old shop.
It sometimes happens that an honest weaver will prefer all this
trouble to forsaking a house that has trusted him. Once
instance has been mentioned to the present writer, in which a
family that had removed from a village on one side of a town to
one on the opposite side, continued for years to send a distance
of two miles and a half to the old shop for their provisions,
although in doing so they had to pass through the town of
Rochdale, where they could have obtained the same things
cheaper. This is in every way a grateful and honourable fact,
and the history of the working class includes crowds of them.
On the virtues of cooperative trade [4]
The principle of co-operation-so moralising to the individual
as a discipline, and so advantageous to the State in its
results-with what difficulty has it made its way in the world!
Regarded by the statesman as some terrible form of political
combination, and by the rich as a scheme of spoliation;
denounced in Parliament, written against by political
economists, preached against by the clergy; the co-operative
idea, as opposed to the competitive, has had to struggle, and
has yet to struggle its way into industry and commerce.
Statesman might spare themselves the gratuitous anxiety they
have often manifested for the suppression of new opinion.
Experience ought to have shown them that wherever one man
endeavours to set up a new idea, ten men at once rise up to put
it down; not always because they think it bad, but because,
whether good or bad, they do not want the existing order of
things altered. They will hate truth itself, even if they know
it to be truth, if truth gives them trouble. The statesman
ought to have higher taste, even if he has no higher employment,
than to join the vulgar and officious crowd in hampering or
hunting honest innovation. There is, or course, a prejudice
felt at first on the part of shopkeepers against co-operative
societies. That sort of feeling exists which we find among
mechanics against the introduction of machinery, which, for want
of better arrangements, is sure to injure them first, however it
may benefit the general public afterwards. But, owing to the
good sense of the co-operators, and no less to the good sense of
the shopkeepers of Rochdale, no unfriendliness worth mentioning
has ever existed between them. The co-operators were humbly
bent on improving their own condition, and at first their
success in that way was so trivial as not to be worth the
trouble of jealousy. For the first three or four years after
the commencement of the Store, its operations produced no
appreciable effect upon the retail trade of the town. The
receipts of the Store in 1847, four years after its commencement
where only 36 pounds a week; about the receipt of a single
average shop, and five or ten times less than the receipts of
some shops. But of late years, no doubt, the shopkeepers,
especially smaller ones, have felt its effects. In some
instances shops have been closed in consequence. The members of
the Store extend out into the suburbs, a distance of one or town
miles from the town. It has happened in the case of at least
one suburban shopkeeper, that half the people for a mile around
him had become Store purchasers. This, of course, would affect
his business. The good feeling prevailing among the tradesmen
of the town has been owing somewhat to a display of unexpected
good sense and moderation on the part of the co-operators, who
have kept themselves free from the greed of mere trade and
vices of rivalry. If the prices of grocery in the town rose,
the Store raised its charges to the same level. It never would,
even in appearance, nor even in self-defence, use its machinery
to undersell others; and when tradesmen lowered, as instances
often occurred, their prices in order to undersell the Store,
and show to the town that they could sell cheaper than any
society of weavers: and when they made a boast of doing so, and
invited the customers of the Store to deal with them in
preference, or taunted the dealers at the Store with the higher
prices they had to pay, the Store never at any time, neither in
its days of weakness nor or strength, would reduce any of its
prices. It passed by, would not recognise, would in no way
imitate this ruinous and vexatious, but common resource of
competition. The Store conducted an honest trade-it charged
an honest average price-it sought no rivalry, nor would it be
drawn into any, although the means of winning were quite as much
in its hands as the hands of its opponents. The prudent maxims
of the members were: ``To be safe we must sell at a profit.''
``To be honest we must sell at a profit.'' ``If we sell sugar
without profit, we must take advantage covertly in the sale of
some other articles to cover that loss.'' ``We will not act
covertly; we will not trade without profit what ever others may
do; we will not profess to sell cheaper than others; we profess
to sell honestly''-and this policy has conquered.
On the freedom of expression [5]
In the next year [1850], a very old enemy of social peace
appeared in Rochdale. The religious element began to contend
for exclusiveness. The rapid increase of the members had
brought together numbers holding evangelical views, and who had
not been reared in a school of practical toleration. These had
no idea of allowing to their colleagues the freedom their
colleagues allowed to them, and they proposed to close the
meeting room on Sundays, and forbid religious controversy. The
liberal and sturdy co-operators, whose good sense and devotion
had created the secular advantages of which the religious
accession had chosen to avail itself, were wholly averse to
this restriction. They valued mental freedom more than any
personal gain, and they could not help regarding with dismay the
introduction of this fatal discord, which had broken up so many
Friendly Societies, and often frustrated the fairest prospects
of mutual improvement. The matter was brought before a general
meeting, on February 4th, 1860. We give the dates of the
leading incidents we record, for they are historic days in the
career of the Store. On the date here quoted, it was resolved,
for the welfare of the Society:-``That every member shall have
full liberty to speak his sentiments on all subjects when
brought before the meetings at a proper time, and in a proper
manner; and all subjects shall be legitimate when properly
proposed.'' The tautology of this memorable resolution shows
the emphasis of alarm under which it was passed, and the
endeavor to secure by reiteration of terms a liberty so
essential to conscience and to progress. The founders of the
Society were justly apprehensive that its principles would be
overthrown by an indiscriminate influx of members, who knew
nothing of the toleration upon which all co-operation must be
founded, and they moved and carried:-``That no propositions be
taken for new members after next general meeting for six months
ensuing.'' From this time peace has prevailed on this subject.
Very early in the history of co-operation-as far back as
1832-the Co-operative Congress, held in London in that year,
wisely agreed to this resolution:-``Whereas, the co-operative
world contains persons of all religious sects, and of all
political parties, it is unanimously resolved, that
Co-operators, as such, are not identified with any
religious, irreligious, or political tenets whatever; neither
those of Mr. Owen, nor of any other individual.'' [Resolution of
the third London Co-operative Congress, 1832.]
Sectarianism is at all times the bane of public unity. Without
toleration of all opinion, popular co-operation is impossible.
On the review of members' applications [6]
The earliest rules of the Society, printed in 1844, have of
course, undergone successive amendments; but the germs of all
their existing rules were there. Every member was to be
formally proposed, his name, trade and residence made known to
every one concerned, and a general meeting effected his
election.
On the penalties for missing duties
(``no-shows'') [7]
A dreadful string of fines is attached to the laws of 1844. The
value of a Trustee or Director may estimated by the fact, that
his fine for non-attendance was sixpence. It is plain
that the Society expected to lose only half-a-crown if the whole
five ran away. However, they proved to be worth more than the
very humble price they put upon themselves.
On expulsion of a member from the
society [8]
The Board of Directors may suspend any member whose conduct is
considered to be injurious to the Society, and a general meeting
may expel him, after which he has great difficulty in obtaining
re-admission if he desires it.
On the Pioneers' purposes of association [9]
Marvellous as has been their subsequent success, their early
dream was much more stupendous-in fact, it amounted to world
making. Our Pioneers set forth their designs in amusing
language, to which designs the Society has mainly adhered, and
has reiterated the same terms much nearer the day of
accomplishment (in the Society's Almanack for 1854). These
Pioneers, in 1844, declared the views of their Association
thus:-
``The objects and plans of this Society are to form arrangements
for the pecuniary benefit and the improvement of the social and
domestic condition of its members, by raising a sufficient
amount of capital in shares of one pound each, to bring into
operation the following plans and arrangements:-
``The establishment of a Store for the sale of provisions,
clothing, etc.
``The building, purchasing, or erecting a number of houses, in
which those members, desiring to assist each other in improving
their domestic and social condition, may reside.
``To commence the manufacture of such articles as the Society may
determine upon, for the employment of such members as may be
without employment, or who may be suffering in consequence of
repeated reductions in their wages.
``As a further benefit and security to the members of this
Society, the Society shall purchase or rent an estate or
estates of land, which shall be cultivated by the members
who may be out of employment, or whose labour may be badly
remunerated.''
Then follows a project which no nation has ever attempted, and
no enthusiasts yet carried out:-
``That, as soon as practicable, this Society shall proceed to
arrange the powers of production, distribution, education,
and government; or, in other words, to establish a
self-supporting home-colony of united interests, or assist other
societies in establishing such colonies.''
Here was a grand paper constitution fro re-arranging the powers
of production and distribution, which it has taken fifteen years
of dreary and patient labour to advance half way.
Then follows a minor but characteristic proposition:-
``That, for the promotion of sobriety, a Temperance Hotel be
opened in one of the Society's houses as soon as convenient.''
On the inefficiency of democracy [10]
The executive policy of democracies is in a very crude state
among the people. Time and zeal are wasted woefully. A
committee of thirteen working men sometimes debate half an
evening away as to whether ninepence or thirteen pence shall be
expended on a broom. Money ought not to be wasted upon brooms,
nor ought hard-reared zeal to be expended in the study of the
petty cash book. Illustrations occur in the minutes of the
Rochdale Society. ``Resolved, that the two parties attending the
Bank on business receive the sum of sixpence each, and the third
party twopence.'' (June 10, 1850.) Judging by the remuneration,
the transactions could not have very responsible. ``Resolved,
that the shopmen be presented with an apron and sleeves each, in
consideration of having to make up some bad money.'' (Feb. 28,
1850) This is a very amusing instance of economical
compensation. ``Resolved, that we have two cisterns for treacle,
two patent taps from Bradford, a shovel for sugar, and one for
currants, and that the step-ladder be repaired.'' (May 9, 1850)
``Resolved, that the grate at the back of the wholesale warehouse
be opened for air.'' (March 6, 1851) ``Resolved, that there be a
watering-can provided for the store.'' (March 28, 1852) No doubt
a protracted debate, five speeches all round, seven or eight
explanations, and heavy replies by the mover and seconder,
preceded these momentous resolutions.
On the independence of women [11]
The Rochdale Store renders incidental but valuable aid toward
realising the civil independence of women. Women may be members
of this Store, and vote in its proceedings. Single and married
women join. Many married women become members because their
husbands will not take the trouble, and others join it in
self-defence, to prevent the husbands from spending their money
in drink. The husband cannot withdraw the savings at the Store
standing in the wife's name unless she signs the order. Of
course, as the law still stands, the husband could by legal
process get possession of the money. But a process takes time,
and the husband gets sober and thinks better of it before the
law can be moved.
Many single women have accumulated property in the Store, which
thus becomes a certificate of their conjugal worth. And young
men, in want of prudent companions, consider that to consult the
books of the Store would be the best means of directing their
selection. The habits of honourable thrift acquired by young
men, members of this Store, renders it unlikely that they would
select industrious girls in marriage for the purpose of living
idleness upon their earnings or savings, as happens elsewhere.
What quality is it that makes a poor woman pay her way? Ladies
do not always do it; many bankruptcies in London are occasioned
by their neglect; the poor woman who has been born with that
faculty, or who has acquired it, is a treasure and a triumph of
good sense and social cultivation. The difficulty of bringing
about this result many working class husbands can tell. The art
of living within your income is a gift. The woman who has it,
will do it with one pound a week; she who has it not, will be
poor with twenty pounds. Peter Noakes, tired of finding himself
always in debt, wants to get his wife one week in advance with
the world. He wants to stand clear on the shopkeepers' books.
He knows that the small tradesman cannot pay his way unless his
customers pay theirs. He therefore saves, by carefulness and
secret thrift, a little money, and one week delights his wife by
giving her double wages, that she may pay in advance for her
things. What is the result? Next week he finds her running
into debt as usual. He complains, and then she tells him the
everlasting story of a thousand working-class homes, ``What could
she do? Mr. Last's bill for Tommy's boots had never been paid,
the account for Billy's jacket had stood over till she was
ashamed of it, little Jane's shoes were out at the toes, and
poor Polly, she was the disgrace of the family for want of a new
frock, and as for Mrs. Noakes herself, her own bonnet was not
fit to be seen, she would rather stop in the house for ever than
go in that old fashioned thing any longer.'' Poor Peter is
overwhelmed-he had never thought of these things. In fact,
Mrs. Noakes tells him ``he never does think of anything. He gets
up and goes to work, and comes home and goes to bed, and never
thinks of anything in the house.'' What can Peter do? He does
the only thing he ought-he allows that his wife ought to know
best, confesses that he is very stupid, kisses her in
confirmation of repentance, and promises to save her another
week's wages, and she shall try what can be done the next time.
In the course of a few weeks, Peter, by over-work and going
without customary half-pints of beer, saves up another week's
wages, when, alas! he finds that the shoemaker has sent another
bill, and the tailor another account-that Master Tommy's
trousers have grown too short for him, young Billy's jacket is
out at the elbows, Jane's shoes let in water, Miss Polly (bless
her sweet soul!) is still the disgrace of the family, and Mrs.
Noakes, although Peter thought she never looked so young nor so
pretty as she did last Sunday, declares her bonnet ``perfectly
hateful; indeed, there is not such another fright as herself in
the whole neighborhood, and if Peter was like anybody else, he
would be ashamed to see his wife go out in such a condition.''
And the little book still goes to the shop, Peter eats cheese as
tough as guttapercha, she buys tea that has been used to
boiling before it was sold to her, the coffee tastes grievously
of burnt corn, Tommy's boots are a long time being mended, Mrs.
Noakes never has sixpence to bless herself with, her money is
all condemned before it comes in; Peter, degraded and
despairing, thinks he may as well drink a pint as a
half-pint-things can't be worse at home. He soon ceases to take
interest in public affairs. How can he consistently help the public
who cannot help himself? How can he talk of independence, who is the
slave of the shoemaker and the tailor? How can he subscribe to a
political or social society, who cannot look his grocer in the face?
Thus he is doubly destroyed. He is good neither for home nor parish.
So ends many domestic experiments for paying in advance. When
children are sick, or the husband is out of work, a wife will submit
to any amount of privation. If she would submit to half as much from
pride of independence as she will from affection, thousands of
families, now always poor, would be in possession of moderate
competence. But to starve your household when you can help it, to
prevent them being starved one day when you cannot help it, implies
good sense, strength of will, and courageous foresight, which many
women certainly display, but which is yet so rare a quality that one
cannot but marvel and applaud the Rochdale co-operators, who have
taught so many families the art of getting out of debt, and inspired
them with the pride of keeping out.
Let the enemies of co-operation ponder on this fact, and learn
wisdom; let the friends of co-operation ponder on this fact and
take courage; the fact that the members in a short period learn
provident habits by connection with these societies-habits
which, in some cases, forty years of competition have failed to
teach.
References
- [1]
-
George Jacob Holyoake, The History of the Rochdale Pioneers,
10th ed. (Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1918),
Chapter V, ``Enemies Within and Enemies Without, and How
They All Were Conquered,'' p. 21-23.
- [2]
-
Holyoake, Chapter V, ``Enemies Within and Enemies Without, and How
They All Were Conquered,'' p. 23-24.
- [3]
-
Holyoake, Chapter V, ``Enemies Within and Enemies Without, and How
They All Were Conquered,'' p. 24-25.
- [4]
-
Holyoake, Chapter V, ``Enemies Within and Enemies Without, and How
They All Were Conquered,'' p. 25-26.
- [5]
-
Holyoake, Chapter IV, ``The Society Tried by Two Well-known
Difficulties-Prejudice and Sectarianism'', p. 19.
- [6]
-
Holyoake, Chapter IV, ``The Society Tried by Two Well-known
Difficulties-Prejudice and Sectarianism'', p. 17.
- [7]
-
Holyoake, Chapter IV, ``The Society Tried by Two Well-known
Difficulties-Prejudice and Sectarianism'', p. 18.
- [8]
-
Holyoake, Chapter IX, ``Rules and Aims of the Society,'' p. 48
- [9]
-
Holyoake, Chapter III, ``The Doffers Appear at the Opening Day.-
Moral Buying as Well as Moral Selling,'' p. 11.
- [10]
-
Holyoake, Chapter III, ``The Doffers Appear at the Opening Day.-
Moral Buying as Well as Moral Selling,'' footnote on p. 13.
- [11]
-
Holyoake, Chapter VIII, ``Anecdotes of the Members-The Working
Class Stand by the Store and They Know The Reason Why," p. 45-46.
Image References
- [I1]
-
Johnston Birchall, Co-op: The People's Business
(Manchester University Press, Manchester, UK, 1994), p. 75.
Copyright 1999 by Ronald Kumon
Laurel House Co-op & Laurel Net Cooperative /
Austin, Texas, USA /
Created 11 Mar 1999 / Updated 02 May 1999
This page is published by Laurel Net Cooperative, a registered student
organization. This page is not an official publication of The
University of Texas at Austin and does not represent the views of The
University or its officers.
